民主、威權、極權三個主題,各句附上國家為例。 三句學術型超複雜文法結構長難句分解示範
民主、威權、極權三個主題,各句附上國家為例。
三句學術型超複雜文法結構長難句分解示範
例句一(民主,以印度為例)
原句
A democracy, in which political authority derives from the consent of citizens who choose their rulers through free and fair elections held at regular intervals and who retain civil liberties such as freedom of speech and association that allow opposition parties to organize, is exemplified by India, which, having adopted its constitution in 1950, held its first general election in 1951–52 under universal adult suffrage in a population that was largely illiterate, a record that admirers, noting that the Election Commission established under that constitution has since supervised voting by hundreds of millions of people, cite as proof that democracy is not limited to wealthy or literate societies, but that critics, who point to pressure on the press and on independent institutions, say has come under strain in recent years.
斷行排列
A democracy,
in which political authority derives from the consent of citizens
who choose their rulers through free and fair elections
held at regular intervals
and who retain civil liberties such as freedom of speech and association
that allow opposition parties to organize,
is exemplified by India,
which,
having adopted its constitution in 1950,
held its first general election in 1951–52
under universal adult suffrage
in a population that was largely illiterate,
a record
that admirers,
noting that the Election Commission established under that constitution
has since supervised voting by hundreds of millions of people,
cite as proof
that democracy is not limited to wealthy or literate societies,
but that critics,
who point to pressure on the press and on independent institutions,
say has come under strain in recent years.
主句
A democracy is exemplified by India.(主詞後先接長長的 in which 子句,內含兩個並列的 who 子句與 that 子句,被動語態的 is exemplified 要讀很久才出現)
拆成短句
民主政體可以印度為例。(主句,被動語態)
在民主政體下,政治權威來自公民的同意。(in which 子句,derives from)
這些公民透過自由公平的選舉選出統治者。(who 關係子句)
這些選舉定期舉行。(過去分詞片語 held)
這些公民也保有公民自由,例如言論與結社自由。(and who 並列,such as)
這些自由讓反對黨得以組織。(that 關係子句)
印度於 1950 年通過憲法。(which 子句,having adopted 完成式分詞片語)
印度在 1951–52 年舉行首次大選。(which 子句的動詞 held)
這次大選採普遍成年選舉權。(under 片語)
當時的人口大多不識字。(in a population that was...,that 關係子句)
這是一項紀錄。(同位語 a record)
讚許者指出依該憲法設立的選舉委員會,此後已監督數億人的投票。(noting,現在分詞片語,插在 admirers 與 cite 之間)
讚許者引這項紀錄為證據。(that 子句,admirers 為主詞,動詞 cite as)
證據顯示民主不限於富裕或識字的社會。(proof that 同位語子句)
批評者則持不同看法。(but that 子句,critics 為主詞)
批評者指出新聞與獨立機構受到壓力。(who 關係子句,point to)
批評者說這項紀錄近年已承受壓力。(say has come under strain,say 為插入語)
参考翻譯
民主政體中,政治權威來自公民的同意,公民透過定期舉行的自由公平選舉選出統治者,並保有言論與結社自由等讓反對黨得以組織的公民自由,印度即為一例;印度於 1950 年通過憲法後,在 1951–52 年於人口大多不識字的情況下,依普遍成年選舉權舉行首次大選,這項紀錄被讚許者(他們指出依該憲法設立的選舉委員會此後已監督數億人的投票)引為民主不限於富裕或識字社會的證據,但批評者指出新聞與獨立機構受到壓力,認為這項民主紀錄近年已承受壓力。
例句二(威權,以佛朗哥統治下的西班牙為例)
原句
An authoritarian regime, which Juan Linz, writing in 1964 about Franco's Spain, distinguished from democracy by its limited political pluralism and from totalitarianism by its lack of an elaborate guiding ideology and of extensive mobilization of the population, is exemplified by Spain under Francisco Franco, who ruled from the end of the civil war in 1939 until his death in 1975, tolerated a narrow range of groups such as the Church and the army within a single-party framework while banning independent parties and unions, and relied on censorship and repression to keep the population passive, a pattern that scholars, noting that the regime shifted in the 1950s and 1960s from economic autarky to technocratic liberalization, treat as a model case, whereas critics of the label, who stress the regime's early mass executions, argue that it understates the coercion.
斷行排列
An authoritarian regime,
which Juan Linz,
writing in 1964 about Franco's Spain,
distinguished from democracy by its limited political pluralism
and from totalitarianism
by its lack of an elaborate guiding ideology
and of extensive mobilization of the population,
is exemplified by Spain under Francisco Franco,
who ruled from the end of the civil war in 1939 until his death in 1975,
tolerated a narrow range of groups such as the Church and the army
within a single-party framework
while banning independent parties and unions,
and relied on censorship and repression
to keep the population passive,
a pattern
that scholars,
noting that the regime shifted in the 1950s and 1960s
from economic autarky to technocratic liberalization,
treat as a model case,
whereas critics of the label,
who stress the regime's early mass executions,
argue that it understates the coercion.
主句
An authoritarian regime is exemplified by Spain under Francisco Franco.(主詞後先接長長的 which 子句,which 是 distinguished 的受詞,被動語態的 is exemplified 要讀很久才出現)
拆成短句
威權政體可以佛朗哥統治下的西班牙為例。(主句,被動語態)
林茲界定了這種政體。(which 關係子句,which 為 distinguished 的受詞)
林茲在 1964 年寫下這個界定。(writing,現在分詞片語,插在 Linz 與 distinguished 之間)
他當時談的是佛朗哥的西班牙。(about 片語)
他以政治多元有限,把它與民主區分。(distinguished from A by B)
他又把它與極權區分。(and from totalitarianism,並列)
區分的依據是缺乏精細的指導意識形態。(by its lack of)
區分的依據也包括缺乏對民眾的廣泛動員。(and of,並列)
佛朗哥自 1939 年內戰結束統治到 1975 年去世。(who 關係子句,ruled from...until)
他容忍教會與軍隊等有限的團體存在。(tolerated,並列動詞之二)
這些團體存在於單一政黨的框架內。(within 片語)
同時他禁止獨立政黨與工會。(while 加動名詞 banning)
他依賴審查與鎮壓使民眾保持消極。(and relied on,並列動詞之三,不定詞 to keep)
這是一種模式。(同位語 a pattern)
學者視這種模式為典型案例。(that 子句,scholars 為主詞,動詞 treat as)
學者注意到政權在 1950 與 1960 年代從經濟自給自足轉向技術官僚式自由化。(noting,現在分詞片語)
批評這種標籤的人則持不同看法。(whereas 子句,critics of the label 為主詞)
這些人強調政權早期的大規模處決。(who 關係子句,stress)
他們認為這種標籤低估了強制的程度。(argue that,it 指 the label)
参考翻譯
威權政體,即林茲於 1964 年論及佛朗哥的西班牙時,以政治多元有限而與民主區分、以缺乏精細的指導意識形態與對民眾的廣泛動員而與極權區分的那種政體,可以佛朗哥統治下的西班牙為例;佛朗哥自 1939 年內戰結束統治到 1975 年去世,在單一政黨框架內容忍教會與軍隊等有限的團體,同時禁止獨立政黨與工會,並依賴審查與鎮壓使民眾保持消極,學者注意到政權在 1950 與 1960 年代從經濟自給自足轉向技術官僚式自由化,仍視這種模式為典型案例,而批評這種標籤的人強調政權早期的大規模處決,認為它低估了強制的程度。
例句三(極權,以史達林統治下的蘇聯為例)
原句
A totalitarian regime, which Carl Friedrich and Zbigniew Brzezinski, writing in 1956, characterized by six interlocking features, namely an official ideology covering all aspects of life, a single mass party typically led by one man, terror enforced by a secret police, a monopoly over mass communications and over weapons, and central control of the economy, is exemplified by the Soviet Union under Joseph Stalin, who from the late 1920s directed forced collectivization and rapid industrialization through five-year plans, used the NKVD to carry out the Great Terror of 1937 and 1938, and sent millions to the Gulag, a pattern that Hannah Arendt, who argued that terror and ideology together aim at remaking human beings rather than merely controlling them, treated as a defining case, although later historians, who note that archives opened after 1991 reveal disorder and improvisation beneath the appearance of total control, dispute whether the model describes how the state really functioned.
斷行排列
A totalitarian regime,
which Carl Friedrich and Zbigniew Brzezinski,
writing in 1956,
characterized by six interlocking features,
namely an official ideology covering all aspects of life,
a single mass party typically led by one man,
terror enforced by a secret police,
a monopoly over mass communications and over weapons,
and central control of the economy,
is exemplified by the Soviet Union under Joseph Stalin,
who from the late 1920s directed forced collectivization and rapid industrialization
through five-year plans,
used the NKVD to carry out the Great Terror of 1937 and 1938,
and sent millions to the Gulag,
a pattern
that Hannah Arendt,
who argued
that terror and ideology together aim at remaking human beings
rather than merely controlling them,
treated as a defining case,
although later historians,
who note
that archives opened after 1991 reveal disorder and improvisation
beneath the appearance of total control,
dispute whether the model describes how the state really functioned.
主句
A totalitarian regime is exemplified by the Soviet Union under Joseph Stalin.(主詞後先接長長的 which 子句,which 是 characterized 的受詞,內含五項並列的 namely 說明,被動語態的 is exemplified 要讀很久才出現)
拆成短句
極權政體可以史達林統治下的蘇聯為例。(主句,被動語態)
弗里德里希與布里辛斯基界定了這種政體。(which 關係子句,which 為 characterized 的受詞)
兩人在 1956 年寫下這個界定。(writing,現在分詞片語,插在兩人與 characterized 之間)
他們以六項相互關聯的特徵來刻畫它。(characterized by)
第一項是涵蓋生活各面向的官方意識形態。(namely 說明,現在分詞 covering)
第二項是通常由一人領導的單一群眾政黨。(過去分詞 led)
第三項是由秘密警察實施的恐怖。(過去分詞 enforced)
第四項是對大眾傳播與武器的壟斷。(over 並列兩個對象)
第五項是對經濟的中央控制。(and central control,並列)
史達林自 1920 年代晚期起推動強制集體化與快速工業化。(who 關係子句,directed)
他是透過五年計畫推動的。(through 片語)
他利用內務人民委員部執行 1937 與 1938 年的大清洗。(used...to carry out,並列動詞之二)
他把數百萬人送進古拉格。(and sent,並列動詞之三)
這是一種模式。(同位語 a pattern)
鄂蘭視這種模式為典型案例。(that 子句,Arendt 為主詞,動詞 treated as)
鄂蘭主張恐怖與意識形態共同的目標是重塑人。(who 關係子句,argued that,aim at)
鄂蘭認為這個目標不只是控制人。(rather than 片語)
後來的歷史學者則持不同看法。(although 子句,historians 為主詞)
這些學者指出 1991 年後開放的檔案顯示混亂與臨機應變。(who 關係子句,note that,過去分詞 opened)
混亂與臨機應變藏在全面控制的表象之下。(beneath 片語)
他們質疑這個模型是否描述了國家真正的運作方式。(dispute whether,間接問句)
参考翻譯
極權政體,即弗里德里希與布里辛斯基於 1956 年以六項相互關聯的特徵(涵蓋生活各面向的官方意識形態、通常由一人領導的單一群眾政黨、由秘密警察實施的恐怖、對大眾傳播與武器的壟斷,以及對經濟的中央控制)所刻畫的政體,可以史達林統治下的蘇聯為例;史達林自 1920 年代晚期起透過五年計畫推動強制集體化與快速工業化,利用內務人民委員部執行 1937 與 1938 年的大清洗,並把數百萬人送進古拉格,鄂蘭主張恐怖與意識形態共同的目標是重塑人而非僅僅控制人,視這種模式為典型案例,但後來的歷史學者指出 1991 年後開放的檔案顯示全面控制的表象之下有混亂與臨機應變,因而質疑這個模型是否描述了國家真正的運作方式。
三句的共同提醒
例句一的主詞 A democracy 與被動語態的 is exemplified 之間,隔著 in which 子句,內含兩個以 and 並列的 who 子句,後面還接 that 子句。India 之後的 which 子句,主詞與動詞 held 之間插了 having adopted 分詞片語。句尾 a record 是前面 held 句的同位語,其後兩個 that 子句以 but 並列:前者 admirers 與 cite 之間插了 noting 片語,that 在子句中是 cite 的受詞;後者 critics 與 say 之間插了 who 子句,that 在子句中是 has come 的主詞,所以 say 是插入語。
例句二的主詞 An authoritarian regime 後面先接 which 子句,which 是 distinguished 的受詞,Linz 與 distinguished 之間又插了 writing 片語,所以要回頭找動詞。distinguished 之後有 from democracy by... 與 from totalitarianism by... 兩組並列,後一組的 by 之後再以 and of 並列兩個 lack 的內容。Franco 之後的 who 子句有 ruled、tolerated、relied 三個並列動詞。句尾 a pattern 是前面整個 who 子句的同位語,其 that 子句中,scholars 與 treat 之間插了 noting 片語,whereas 再引出對照的批評者。
例句三的主詞 A totalitarian regime 後面先接 which 子句,which 是 characterized 的受詞,Friedrich and Brzezinski 與 characterized 之間插了 writing 片語,後面的 namely 說明以五個名詞片語並列,其中第四項 over 並列兩個對象,被動語態的 is exemplified 要讀很久才出現。Stalin 之後的 who 子句有 directed、used、sent 三個並列動詞。句尾 a pattern 是前面整個 who 子句的同位語,其 that 子句中,Arendt 與 treated 之間插了 who 子句,內含 rather than 片語;although 子句中 historians 與 dispute 之間,又插了 who 子句,內含過去分詞 opened 與 beneath 片語。
另外,這三個主題屬於政治學的政體分類,我採描述性寫法,以「讚許者」「批評者」「學者」呈現各方論點,不替任何一種政體下結論。例句二與例句三的定義分別取自林茲 1964 年對佛朗哥西班牙的論述,以及弗里德里希與布里辛斯基 1956 年提出的六項特徵,鄂蘭的觀點取自《極權主義的起源》;印度 1950 年憲法、1951–52 年首次大選、佛朗哥 1939–1975 年的統治、大清洗 1937–38 年等年份,取自一般廣泛引用的資料,若要用於正式教材,建議再核對原典。
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