政治學上的總統制、半總統制（雙首長制）、議會制（內閣制） 三句學術型超複雜文法結構長難句分解示範

政治學上的總統制、半總統制（雙首長制）、議會制（內閣制）

三句學術型超複雜文法結構長難句分解示範

例句一（總統制）美國

原句

A presidential system, in which the head of government, who is also the head of state, is elected separately from the legislature for a fixed term and cannot be removed by a simple vote of no confidence, concentrates executive authority in one person, a design that its defenders, arguing that it gives voters a direct choice and guards against unstable coalitions, praise for its clarity and stability, but that critics such as Juan Linz, who contended that the independent legitimacy of both branches invites deadlock with no constitutional means of resolution, have blamed for the breakdown of democracies in Latin America, where presidents facing hostile legislatures have sometimes turned to emergency powers.

斷行排列

A presidential system,

　in which the head of government,

　　who is also the head of state,

　　is elected separately from the legislature for a fixed term

　　and cannot be removed by a simple vote of no confidence,

concentrates executive authority in one person,

　a design

　　that its defenders,

　　　arguing that it gives voters a direct choice

　　　and guards against unstable coalitions,

　　praise for its clarity and stability,

　　but that critics such as Juan Linz,

　　　who contended

　　　　that the independent legitimacy of both branches invites deadlock

　　　　　with no constitutional means of resolution,

　　have blamed for the breakdown of democracies in Latin America,

　　　where presidents

　　　　facing hostile legislatures

　　　　have sometimes turned to emergency powers.

主句

A presidential system concentrates executive authority in one person.（主詞後先接長長的 in which 子句，內含 who 子句與兩個並列動詞，動詞 concentrates 要讀很久才出現）

拆成短句

總統制把行政權集中在一人手中。（主句，concentrates）

在這種制度下，政府首長也是國家元首。（in which 子句，who 關係子句）

他與立法機關分別選出，任期固定。（is elected separately，被動語態）

他不能被簡單的不信任投票罷免。（and cannot be removed，並列）

這是一種制度設計。（同位語 a design）

捍衛者稱讚它清楚而穩定。（that 子句，defenders 為主詞，動詞 praise for）

捍衛者主張它讓選民直接做選擇。（arguing，現在分詞片語）

他們也主張它可防範不穩定的聯合政府。（and guards against，並列）

批評者則把某些問題歸咎於它。（but that 子句，critics 為主詞，動詞 have blamed）

批評者之一是胡安・林茲。（such as 片語）

林茲主張兩個部門各自具有獨立的正當性。（who contended that，that 子句）

這種正當性容易導致僵局。（invites deadlock）

憲法沒有解決僵局的辦法。（with no constitutional means of resolution）

批評者把它歸咎於拉丁美洲民主的崩潰。（blamed for）

在拉丁美洲，總統面對敵對的立法機關時，有時會訴諸緊急權力。（where 關係子句，facing 分詞片語）

參考翻譯

總統制中，兼任國家元首的政府首長與立法機關分別選出、任期固定，且不能被簡單的不信任投票罷免，因而把行政權集中在一人手中；捍衛者主張這種設計讓選民直接做選擇、並可防範不穩定的聯合政府，而稱讚其清楚與穩定，但批評者如林茲（他主張兩個部門各自的獨立正當性容易導致憲法上無解的僵局）則把拉丁美洲民主的崩潰歸咎於它，在那裡，面對敵對立法機關的總統有時會訴諸緊急權力。

例句二（半總統制，雙首長制）法國

原句

A semi-presidential system, which Maurice Duverger, writing in 1980 about the French Fifth Republic, defined as one in which a popularly elected president with considerable powers coexists with a prime minister and cabinet who are responsible to the legislature, divides executive authority between two offices, an arrangement that works smoothly when the president's party controls the legislature but that, when the two are held by rival parties, produces cohabitation, a situation in which the president, whose constitutional role may be reduced to foreign and defense policy, must appoint a prime minister whom the legislative majority will support, and which scholars who distinguish presidential-parliamentary from premier-presidential variants say tends to be more stable in the latter.

斷行排列

A semi-presidential system,

　which Maurice Duverger,

　　writing in 1980 about the French Fifth Republic,

　defined as one

　　in which a popularly elected president with considerable powers

　　coexists with a prime minister and cabinet

　　　who are responsible to the legislature,

divides executive authority between two offices,

　an arrangement

　　that works smoothly

　　　when the president's party controls the legislature

　　but that,

　　　when the two are held by rival parties,

　　produces cohabitation,

　　　a situation

　　　　in which the president,

　　　　　whose constitutional role may be reduced to foreign and defense policy,

　　　　must appoint a prime minister

　　　　　whom the legislative majority will support,

　　　　and which scholars

　　　　　who distinguish presidential-parliamentary from premier-presidential variants

　　　　say tends to be more stable in the latter.

主句

A semi-presidential system divides executive authority between two offices.（主詞後先接長長的 which 子句，內含分詞片語與 in which 子句，動詞 divides 要讀很久才出現）

拆成短句

半總統制把行政權分給兩個職位。（主句，divides）

這種制度是莫里斯・杜瓦傑定義的。（which 關係子句，which 為 defined 的受詞）

杜瓦傑在 1980 年寫下這個定義。（writing，現在分詞片語，插在 Duverger 與 defined 之間）

他當時談的是法國第五共和。（about 片語）

他把它定義為這樣一種制度。（defined as one，one 指 system）

在這種制度下，民選且權力可觀的總統與總理及內閣並存。（in which 子句，coexists with）

總理與內閣向立法機關負責。（who 關係子句）

這是一種安排。（同位語 an arrangement）

當總統所屬政黨控制立法機關時，這種安排運作順暢。（that works smoothly，when 子句）

當兩個職位由對立政黨掌握時，卻會產生共治。（but that，when 子句插入，produces cohabitation）

共治是一種情況。（同位語 a situation）

在共治中，總統的憲法角色可能縮減為外交與國防政策。（in which 子句，whose 關係子句）

總統必須任命立法多數會支持的總理。（must appoint，whom 關係子句）

學者說共治在後一種變體中往往較穩定。（and which 並列，scholars say 為插入語，tends to be）

這些學者區分總理總統制與總統議會制。（who 關係子句，distinguish A from B）

參考翻譯

半總統制，即杜瓦傑於 1980 年論及法國第五共和時所定義的一種制度，由民選且權力可觀的總統，與向立法機關負責的總理及內閣並存，因而把行政權分給兩個職位；當總統所屬政黨控制立法機關時，這種安排運作順暢，但當兩個職位由對立政黨掌握時，則會產生共治，此時憲法角色可能縮減為外交與國防政策的總統，必須任命立法多數會支持的總理，而區分總統議會制與總理總統制兩種變體的學者認為，共治在後者中往往較穩定。

例句三（議會制，內閣制）英國

原句

A parliamentary system, in which the executive, drawn from and accountable to the legislature, holds office only so long as it keeps the confidence of a majority of members, fuses the two branches in a way that Walter Bagehot, who admired the British cabinet as the efficient part of the constitution, praised for allowing a government with a majority to act quickly, whereas critics, noting that the prime minister is usually chosen by the party rather than directly by the voters and that coalition governments in countries such as Italy and Israel have fallen repeatedly, argue that it weakens separation of powers, an objection that its defenders, who point to the stability of Germany's constructive vote of no confidence, which permits a chancellor to be removed only when a successor has been elected, answer by saying that accountability to parliament is itself a check.

斷行排列

A parliamentary system,

　in which the executive,

　　drawn from and accountable to the legislature,

　　holds office only so long as it keeps the confidence of a majority of members,

fuses the two branches in a way

　that Walter Bagehot,

　　who admired the British cabinet as the efficient part of the constitution,

　　praised for allowing a government with a majority to act quickly,

　whereas critics,

　　noting

　　　that the prime minister is usually chosen by the party

　　　rather than directly by the voters

　　　and that coalition governments in countries such as Italy and Israel have fallen repeatedly,

　argue that it weakens separation of powers,

　an objection

　　that its defenders,

　　　who point to the stability of Germany's constructive vote of no confidence,

　　　　which permits a chancellor to be removed

　　　　　only when a successor has been elected,

　　answer by saying

　　　that accountability to parliament is itself a check.

主句

A parliamentary system fuses the two branches.（主詞後先接長長的 in which 子句，內含過去分詞片語與 so long as 子句，動詞 fuses 要讀很久才出現）

拆成短句

議會制把兩個部門融合在一起。（主句，fuses）

在這種制度下，行政部門產生自立法機關。（in which 子句，drawn from 過去分詞片語）

行政部門向立法機關負責。（and accountable to，並列）

只要行政部門保有多數議員的信任，就能繼續執政。（holds office only so long as）

白芝浩讚許這種融合方式。（that 關係子句，Bagehot 為主詞，動詞 praised）

白芝浩把英國內閣視為憲法中有效率的部分。（who 關係子句）

他稱讚它讓擁有多數的政府能迅速行動。（praised for allowing）

批評者的看法則不同。（whereas 子句，critics 為主詞）

批評者指出總理通常由政黨選出，而非由選民直接選出。（noting，現在分詞片語，第一個 that 子句）

批評者也指出義大利與以色列等國的聯合政府屢次垮台。（第二個 that 子句，並列，現在完成式）

批評者主張它削弱了權力分立。（argue that，動詞 argue）

這是一種反對意見。（同位語 an objection）

捍衛者回應這種反對意見。（that 子句，defenders 為主詞，動詞 answer）

捍衛者指出德國建設性不信任投票的穩定性。（who 關係子句，point to）

這種投票只在繼任者選出後才可罷免總理。（which 關係子句，被動語態，only when）

捍衛者說，對議會負責本身就是一種制衡。（answer by saying that）

參考翻譯

議會制中，產生自立法機關並向其負責的行政部門，只要保有多數議員的信任就能繼續執政，兩個部門因而融合，白芝浩（他把英國內閣視為憲法中有效率的部分）稱讚這種方式讓擁有多數的政府能迅速行動；批評者則指出總理通常由政黨而非選民直接選出，義大利與以色列等國的聯合政府也屢次垮台，因而主張它削弱了權力分立，對於這項反對意見，捍衛者指出德國的建設性不信任投票（只在繼任者選出後才可罷免總理）使制度穩定，並回應說對議會負責本身就是一種制衡。

三句的共同提醒

例句一的主詞 A presidential system 與動詞 concentrates 之間，隔著 in which 子句，內含 who 子句與 is elected、cannot be removed 兩個並列動詞。句尾 a design 是前面整個 concentrates 句的同位語，其後兩個 that 子句以 but 並列：前者主詞 defenders 與動詞 praise 之間插了 arguing 片語，後者主詞 critics 與動詞 have blamed 之間插了 who 子句，句尾再接 where 子句，內含 facing 分詞片語。

例句二的主詞 A semi-presidential system 後面先接 which 子句，which 是 defined 的受詞，所以要回頭找動詞，Duverger 與 defined 之間又插了 writing 片語，defined as one 後的 in which 子句內再含 who 子句，動詞 divides 要讀很久才出現。句尾 an arrangement 與 a situation 是兩層同位語，後者的 in which 與 and which 兩個子句並列，前一個內含 whose 子句與 whom 子句，後一個的 scholars 與 say 之間插了 who 子句。

例句三的主詞 A parliamentary system 與動詞 fuses 之間，隔著 in which 子句，內含過去分詞片語與 so long as 子句。in a way that 之後，Bagehot 與 praised 之間插了 who 子句，whereas 子句內 critics 與 argue 之間又插了 noting 片語，內含兩個並列 that 子句。句尾 an objection 是前面 argue 子句的同位語，其 that 子句中 defenders 與 answer 之間，插了 who 子句，內含 which 子句。

另外，這三個主題屬於政治學的制度分類，我採描述性寫法，以「捍衛者」與「批評者」呈現各方論點，不替任何一種制度下結論。林茲、杜瓦傑、白芝浩的主張，以及德國建設性不信任投票等內容，取自一般廣泛引用的資料，若要用於正式教材，建議再核對原典。